用户讨论:杨治平

教科书设计基础

前言：课本的中外历史回顾
一、面向个体课本的理论基础
（一）哲学基础（二）心理学基础（三）课程论基础 1、给课程下定义 2、设计课程模式（四）技术基础 1、印刷技术 2、电子出版（五）传播学基础（六）教育社会学二、面向个体课本的哲学评估
（一）教材设计者的哲学倾向评估（二）学生的哲学倾向评估（三）家长的哲学倾向评估（四）社会需要评估三、面向个体课本的需要评估（一）学生认知风格的评估（二）学生的成长需要评估四、面向个体课本的团队组建五、面向个体课本的制作过程（一）传统的发布模式（二）学生参与教材设计--教材制作的生成模式（三）教材如何应对学生需要（四）教材如何挑战学生六、面向个体课本的使用（一）教材使用的不同方法：教师用课本还是课本用教师？（二）教材的选用七、面向个体课本的出版发行（一）国家的作为：电子教材平台（二）商业的作为：定做教科书（三）教师的作为：生成教科书八、面向个体课本的评价（一）可读性评价（二）学习效果评价九、面向个体课本的互动性十、面向个体课本的内容安排（一）知识树的建构（二）知识数据库的建设（三）知识的组织方式十一、面向个体课本的视觉效果（一）颜色（二）字体（三）图案（四）图表（五）表格（六）媒体（七）整体风格十二、一本多样与一本多变十三、使用者的课本化选择（一）呈现方式的选择：文字、图文、多媒体、单媒体（二）全纳视角下：可以听和可以摸的教材（三）打印输出十四、课本的更新和升级十五、课本的审查

教育哲学评估与教科书设计

教科书的一般定义

教科书的形态不是固定不变的，从它诞生的那天起，其形态就一直在演变之中。对一个我们日常生活中众所周知的东西下一个概念，给予严格的定义，不是很容易的事情。一、书的定义：辞海定义：书是装订成册的著作。联合国教科文组织：书是一种不少于49页的非定期出版物。英国大百科全书：书是手写或印刷而成的具有一定长度的信息，准备广泛发行并记载于便于携带的轻型和耐久的材料之上。（凡印刷而成的书，不得少于64页或96页） [王祖发《教材管理学》西南交通大学出版社1991] published work of literature or scholarship; the term has been defined by UNESCO for statistical purposes as a "non-periodical printed publication of at least 49 pages excluding covers," but no strict definition satisfactorily covers the variety of publications so identified.

Although the form, content, and provisions for making books have varied widely during their long history, some constant characteristics may be identified. The most obvious is that a book is designed to serve as an instrument of communication-the purpose of such diverse forms as the Babylonian clay tablet, the Egyptian papyrus roll, the medieval vellum or parchment codex, the printed paper codex (most familiar in modern times), microfilm, and various other media and combinations. The second characteristic of the book is its use of writing or some other system of visual symbols (such as pictures or musical notation) to convey meaning. A third distinguishing feature is publication for tangible circulation. A temple column with a message carved on it is not a book nor is a sign or placard, which, though it may be easy enough to transport, is made to attract the eye of the passerby from a fixed location. Nor are private documents considered books. A book may be defined, therefore, as a written (or printed) message of considerable length, meant for public circulation and recorded on materials that are light yet durable enough to afford comparatively easy portability. Its primary purpose is to announce, expound, preserve, and transmit knowledge and information between people, depending on the twin faculties of portability and permanence. Books have attended the preservation and dissemination of knowledge in every literate society.

The papyrus roll of ancient Egypt is more nearly the direct ancestor of the modern book than is the clay tablet of the ancient Sumerians, Babylonians, Assyrians, and Hittites; examples of both date from about 3000 BC.

The Chinese independently created an extensive scholarship based on books, though not so early as the Sumerians and the Egyptians. Primitive Chinese books were made of wood or bamboo strips bound together with cords. The emperor Shih Huang Ti attempted to blot out publishing by burning books in 213 BC, but the tradition of book scholarship was nurtured under the Han dynasty (206 BC to AD 220). The survival of Chinese texts was assured by continuous copying. In AD 175, Confucian texts began to be carved into stone tablets and preserved by rubbings. Lampblack ink was introduced in China in AD 400 and printing from wooden blocks in the 6th century.

The Greeks adopted the papyrus roll and passed it on to the Romans. The vellum or parchment codex, which had superseded the roll by AD 400, was a revolutionary change in the form of the book. The codex introduced several advantages: a series of pages could be opened to any point in the text, both sides of the leaf could carry the message, and longer texts could be bound in a single volume. The medieval vellum or parchment leaves were prepared from the skins of animals. By the 15th century paper manuscripts were common. During the Middle Ages, monasteries characteristically had libraries and scriptoria, places in which scribes copied books. The manuscript books of the Middle Ages, the models for the first printed books, were affected by the rise of Humanism and the growing interest in vernacular languages in the 14th and 15th centuries.

The spread of printing was rapid in the second half of the 15th century; the printed books of that period are known as incunabula. The book made possible a revolution in thought and scholarship that became evident by the 16th century: the sources lay in the capacity of the press to multiply copies, to complete editions, and to reproduce a uniform graphic design along new conventional patterns that made the printed volume differ in appearance from the handwritten book. Other aspects of the printing revolution-cultural change associated with concentration on visual communication as contrasted to the oral modes of earlier times-have been emphasized by Marshall McLuhan.

In the 17th century books were generally inferior in appearance to the best examples of the art of the book in the 16th. There was a great expansion in the reading public in the 17th and 18th centuries in the West, in part because of the increasing literacy of women. Type designs were advanced. The lithographic process of printing illustrations, discovered at the end of the 18th century, was significant because it became the basis for offset printing.

In the 19th century the mechanization of printing provided the means for meeting the increased demand for books in industrialized societies. William Morris, in an effort to renew a spirit of craftsmanship, started the private press movement late in the 19th century. In the 20th century the book maintained a role of cultural ascendancy, although challenged by new media for dissemination of knowledge and its storage and retrieval. The paperbound format proved successful not only for the mass marketing of books but also from the 1950s for books of less general appeal. After World War II, an increase in use of colour illustration, particularly in children's books and textbooks, was an obvious trend, facilitated by the development of improved high-speed, offset printing. http://search.eb.com/eb/article?tocId=9080651&query=book&ct= The papyrus roll of ancient Egypt is more nearly the direct ancestor of the modern book than is the clay tablet. Papyrus as a writing material resembles paper. It was made from a reedy plant of the same name that flourishes in the Nile Valley. Strips of papyrus pith laid at right angles on top of each other and pasted together made cream-coloured papery sheets. Although the sheets varied in size, ordinary ones measured about five to six inches wide. The sheets were pasted together to make a long roll. To make a book, the scribe copied a text on the side of the sheets where the strips of pith ran horizontally, and the finished product was rolled up with the text inside.

The use of papyrus affected the style of writing just as clay tablets had done. Scribes wrote on it with a reed pen or brush and inks of different colours. The result could be very decorative, especially when done in the monumental hieroglyphic style of writing, a style best adapted to stone inscriptions. The Egyptians created two cursive hands, the hieratic (priestly) and the demotic (a simplified form of hieratic suited to popular use), which were better adapted to papyrus.

Compared with tablets, papyrus is fragile, yet an example is extant from 2500 BC; and stone inscriptions that are even older portray scribes with rolls. This amazing survival is partly the result of the dry climate of Egypt, in which some papyrus rolls survived unprotected for centuries while buried in the desert sands. The practice of certain Egyptian funerary customs also contributed to the preservation of many Egyptian books. Obsessed by a concern with life after death, they wrote magical formulas on coffins and on the walls of tombs to guide the dead safely to the gates of the Egyptian underworld. When the space thus provided became insufficient, they entombed papyrus rolls containing the texts. These mortuary texts are now described collectively as the Book of the Dead, although the Egyptians never standardized a uniform collection. Such books, when overlooked by grave robbers, survived in good condition in the tomb. Besides mortuary texts, Egyptian texts included scientific writings and a large number of myths, stories, and tales.

Quotations from ancient writings show that scribes were highly regarded in ancient Egypt. They were the priests and government officials employed in the temples, pyramid complexes, and the courts of the pharaohs. The Greek historian Herodotus reported that Egyptian embalmers did a thriving business in copies of the Book of the Dead. http://search.eb.com/eb/article?tocId=28600&hook=397945#397945.hook

二、教科书的定义： Textbook: a book used by students as a standard work for a particular branch of study. 美国百科全书：从严格的意义上讲，教科书是一种为了学习的目的，通过编制加工并通常用简化的方法介绍主要知识的书。 [王祖发《教材管理学》西南交通大学出版社1991] 汉语大词典：根据教学大纲的要求，专门为学生上课和复习而编写的书。教育大词典：教科书（textbook），亦称"课本"，"教本"。根据各科教学大纲（或课程标准）编写的教学用书。教材的主体。是师生教学的主要材料，考核教学成绩的主要依据，学生课外扩大知识领域的重要基础。通常按学年或学期分册，划分单元或章节。主要由课本、注释、插图、实验和习题等构成。其中课本是最基本的部分。其采用或认可制度有国定制、审定制、自由制。印制要求卫生、实用，定价低廉。教科书名称的出现，在中国始于19世纪70年代。1877年来华基督教传教士成立学校教科书委员会。1897年上海南洋公学编辑的《蒙学课本》3册是近代中国最早正式出版的具有教科书体制雏形的自编教科书。三、教材的定义：《中国大百科全书.教育卷》：教材一般有两种解释：（1）根据一定学科的任务编选和组织具有一定范围和深度的知识和技能体系。它一般用教科书的形式来具体反映。（2）教师指导学生学习的一切教学材料。它包括教科书、讲义、讲授提纲、参考书刊、辅导材料以及教学辅助教材（如图表、教学影片、唱片、录音和录像磁带等）。教科书、讲义和讲授提纲是教材整体中的主体部分。 [范印哲《教材设计与编写》高等教育出版社1997] 四、教材与教科书的关系：教科书是教材的一种。从概念的逻辑上讲，教科书是教材的子集。教材又是课程的子集。因此，课程开发与设计的理论对教科书的设计是具有指导意义的。实际上，很大部分的课程开发的工作是教科书的开发工作。五、书与教科书的关系：教科书是书的一种。从概念的逻辑上讲，教科书是书的子集。在目前已经出版的书中，教科书占有很大的比重。在全世界生产的书中，教科书大约占一半。美国的教育出版在世界上居领先的地位。在1970年，销售了215,000,000本教科书。 [Encyclopedia America Grolier Incorporated 1985 P.563] 书的形态决定了教科书的形态，书的历史也基本上是教科书的历史。而在众多的书中教科书又占有重要的地位，教科书的历史因此也在一定程度上反映了书的历史。