用戶討論:楊治平

教科書設計基礎

前言：課本的中外歷史回顧
一、面向個體課本的理論基礎
（一）哲學基礎（二）心理學基礎（三）課程論基礎 1、給課程下定義 2、設計課程模式（四）技術基礎 1、印刷技術 2、電子出版（五）傳播學基礎（六）教育社會學二、面向個體課本的哲學評估
（一）教材設計者的哲學傾向評估（二）學生的哲學傾向評估（三）家長的哲學傾向評估（四）社會需要評估三、面向個體課本的需要評估（一）學生認知風格的評估（二）學生的成長需要評估四、面向個體課本的團隊組建五、面向個體課本的製作過程（一）傳統的發布模式（二）學生參與教材設計--教材製作的生成模式（三）教材如何應對學生需要（四）教材如何挑戰學生六、面向個體課本的使用（一）教材使用的不同方法：教師用課本還是課本用教師？（二）教材的選用七、面向個體課本的出版發行（一）國家的作為：電子教材平台（二）商業的作為：定做教科書（三）教師的作為：生成教科書八、面向個體課本的評價（一）可讀性評價（二）學習效果評價九、面向個體課本的互動性十、面向個體課本的內容安排（一）知識樹的建構（二）知識數據庫的建設（三）知識的組織方式十一、面向個體課本的視覺效果（一）顏色（二）字體（三）圖案（四）圖表（五）表格（六）媒體（七）整體風格十二、一本多樣與一本多變十三、使用者的課本化選擇（一）呈現方式的選擇：文字、圖文、多媒體、單媒體（二）全納視角下：可以聽和可以摸的教材（三）打印輸出十四、課本的更新和升級十五、課本的審查

教育哲學評估與教科書設計

教科書的一般定義

教科書的形態不是固定不變的，從它誕生的那天起，其形態就一直在演變之中。對一個我們日常生活中眾所周知的東西下一個概念，給予嚴格的定義，不是很容易的事情。一、書的定義：辭海定義：書是裝訂成冊的著作。聯合國教科文組織：書是一種不少於49頁的非定期出版物。英國大百科全書：書是手寫或印刷而成的具有一定長度的信息，準備廣泛發行並記載於便於攜帶的輕型和耐久的材料之上。（凡印刷而成的書，不得少於64頁或96頁） [王祖發《教材管理學》西南交通大學出版社1991] published work of literature or scholarship; the term has been defined by UNESCO for statistical purposes as a "non-periodical printed publication of at least 49 pages excluding covers," but no strict definition satisfactorily covers the variety of publications so identified.

Although the form, content, and provisions for making books have varied widely during their long history, some constant characteristics may be identified. The most obvious is that a book is designed to serve as an instrument of communication-the purpose of such diverse forms as the Babylonian clay tablet, the Egyptian papyrus roll, the medieval vellum or parchment codex, the printed paper codex (most familiar in modern times), microfilm, and various other media and combinations. The second characteristic of the book is its use of writing or some other system of visual symbols (such as pictures or musical notation) to convey meaning. A third distinguishing feature is publication for tangible circulation. A temple column with a message carved on it is not a book nor is a sign or placard, which, though it may be easy enough to transport, is made to attract the eye of the passerby from a fixed location. Nor are private documents considered books. A book may be defined, therefore, as a written (or printed) message of considerable length, meant for public circulation and recorded on materials that are light yet durable enough to afford comparatively easy portability. Its primary purpose is to announce, expound, preserve, and transmit knowledge and information between people, depending on the twin faculties of portability and permanence. Books have attended the preservation and dissemination of knowledge in every literate society.

The papyrus roll of ancient Egypt is more nearly the direct ancestor of the modern book than is the clay tablet of the ancient Sumerians, Babylonians, Assyrians, and Hittites; examples of both date from about 3000 BC.

The Chinese independently created an extensive scholarship based on books, though not so early as the Sumerians and the Egyptians. Primitive Chinese books were made of wood or bamboo strips bound together with cords. The emperor Shih Huang Ti attempted to blot out publishing by burning books in 213 BC, but the tradition of book scholarship was nurtured under the Han dynasty (206 BC to AD 220). The survival of Chinese texts was assured by continuous copying. In AD 175, Confucian texts began to be carved into stone tablets and preserved by rubbings. Lampblack ink was introduced in China in AD 400 and printing from wooden blocks in the 6th century.

The Greeks adopted the papyrus roll and passed it on to the Romans. The vellum or parchment codex, which had superseded the roll by AD 400, was a revolutionary change in the form of the book. The codex introduced several advantages: a series of pages could be opened to any point in the text, both sides of the leaf could carry the message, and longer texts could be bound in a single volume. The medieval vellum or parchment leaves were prepared from the skins of animals. By the 15th century paper manuscripts were common. During the Middle Ages, monasteries characteristically had libraries and scriptoria, places in which scribes copied books. The manuscript books of the Middle Ages, the models for the first printed books, were affected by the rise of Humanism and the growing interest in vernacular languages in the 14th and 15th centuries.

The spread of printing was rapid in the second half of the 15th century; the printed books of that period are known as incunabula. The book made possible a revolution in thought and scholarship that became evident by the 16th century: the sources lay in the capacity of the press to multiply copies, to complete editions, and to reproduce a uniform graphic design along new conventional patterns that made the printed volume differ in appearance from the handwritten book. Other aspects of the printing revolution-cultural change associated with concentration on visual communication as contrasted to the oral modes of earlier times-have been emphasized by Marshall McLuhan.

In the 17th century books were generally inferior in appearance to the best examples of the art of the book in the 16th. There was a great expansion in the reading public in the 17th and 18th centuries in the West, in part because of the increasing literacy of women. Type designs were advanced. The lithographic process of printing illustrations, discovered at the end of the 18th century, was significant because it became the basis for offset printing.

In the 19th century the mechanization of printing provided the means for meeting the increased demand for books in industrialized societies. William Morris, in an effort to renew a spirit of craftsmanship, started the private press movement late in the 19th century. In the 20th century the book maintained a role of cultural ascendancy, although challenged by new media for dissemination of knowledge and its storage and retrieval. The paperbound format proved successful not only for the mass marketing of books but also from the 1950s for books of less general appeal. After World War II, an increase in use of colour illustration, particularly in children's books and textbooks, was an obvious trend, facilitated by the development of improved high-speed, offset printing. http://search.eb.com/eb/article?tocId=9080651&query=book&ct= The papyrus roll of ancient Egypt is more nearly the direct ancestor of the modern book than is the clay tablet. Papyrus as a writing material resembles paper. It was made from a reedy plant of the same name that flourishes in the Nile Valley. Strips of papyrus pith laid at right angles on top of each other and pasted together made cream-coloured papery sheets. Although the sheets varied in size, ordinary ones measured about five to six inches wide. The sheets were pasted together to make a long roll. To make a book, the scribe copied a text on the side of the sheets where the strips of pith ran horizontally, and the finished product was rolled up with the text inside.

The use of papyrus affected the style of writing just as clay tablets had done. Scribes wrote on it with a reed pen or brush and inks of different colours. The result could be very decorative, especially when done in the monumental hieroglyphic style of writing, a style best adapted to stone inscriptions. The Egyptians created two cursive hands, the hieratic (priestly) and the demotic (a simplified form of hieratic suited to popular use), which were better adapted to papyrus.

Compared with tablets, papyrus is fragile, yet an example is extant from 2500 BC; and stone inscriptions that are even older portray scribes with rolls. This amazing survival is partly the result of the dry climate of Egypt, in which some papyrus rolls survived unprotected for centuries while buried in the desert sands. The practice of certain Egyptian funerary customs also contributed to the preservation of many Egyptian books. Obsessed by a concern with life after death, they wrote magical formulas on coffins and on the walls of tombs to guide the dead safely to the gates of the Egyptian underworld. When the space thus provided became insufficient, they entombed papyrus rolls containing the texts. These mortuary texts are now described collectively as the Book of the Dead, although the Egyptians never standardized a uniform collection. Such books, when overlooked by grave robbers, survived in good condition in the tomb. Besides mortuary texts, Egyptian texts included scientific writings and a large number of myths, stories, and tales.

Quotations from ancient writings show that scribes were highly regarded in ancient Egypt. They were the priests and government officials employed in the temples, pyramid complexes, and the courts of the pharaohs. The Greek historian Herodotus reported that Egyptian embalmers did a thriving business in copies of the Book of the Dead. http://search.eb.com/eb/article?tocId=28600&hook=397945#397945.hook

二、教科書的定義： Textbook: a book used by students as a standard work for a particular branch of study. 美國百科全書：從嚴格的意義上講，教科書是一種為了學習的目的，通過編制加工並通常用簡化的方法介紹主要知識的書。 [王祖發《教材管理學》西南交通大學出版社1991] 漢語大詞典：根據教學大綱的要求，專門為學生上課和複習而編寫的書。教育大詞典：教科書（textbook），亦稱"課本"，"教本"。根據各科教學大綱（或課程標準）編寫的教學用書。教材的主體。是師生教學的主要材料，考核教學成績的主要依據，學生課外擴大知識領域的重要基礎。通常按學年或學期分冊，劃分單元或章節。主要由課本、註釋、插圖、實驗和習題等構成。其中課本是最基本的部分。其採用或認可制度有國定製、審定製、自由制。印製要求衛生、實用，定價低廉。教科書名稱的出現，在中國始於19世紀70年代。1877年來華基督教傳教士成立學校教科書委員會。1897年上海南洋公學編輯的《蒙學課本》3冊是近代中國最早正式出版的具有教科書體制雛形的自編教科書。三、教材的定義：《中國大百科全書.教育卷》：教材一般有兩種解釋：（1）根據一定學科的任務編選和組織具有一定範圍和深度的知識和技能體系。它一般用教科書的形式來具體反映。（2）教師指導學生學習的一切教學材料。它包括教科書、講義、講授提綱、參考書刊、輔導材料以及教學輔助教材（如圖表、教學影片、唱片、錄音和錄像磁帶等）。教科書、講義和講授提綱是教材整體中的主體部分。 [范印哲《教材設計與編寫》高等教育出版社1997] 四、教材與教科書的關係：教科書是教材的一種。從概念的邏輯上講，教科書是教材的子集。教材又是課程的子集。因此，課程開發與設計的理論對教科書的設計是具有指導意義的。實際上，很大部分的課程開發的工作是教科書的開發工作。五、書與教科書的關係：教科書是書的一種。從概念的邏輯上講，教科書是書的子集。在目前已經出版的書中，教科書佔有很大的比重。在全世界生產的書中，教科書大約佔一半。美國的教育出版在世界上居領先的地位。在1970年，銷售了215,000,000本教科書。 [Encyclopedia America Grolier Incorporated 1985 P.563] 書的形態決定了教科書的形態，書的歷史也基本上是教科書的歷史。而在眾多的書中教科書又佔有重要的地位，教科書的歷史因此也在一定程度上反映了書的歷史。